~~NOCACHE~~ ~~NOTOC~~ ====== Williams: Catechism of English Grammar (1818) ====== Last Change: 17.10.2015 12 9 17.10.2015 Williams, David Male The Catechism of English Grammar; Containing the Principles of the Language, and Rules and Directions for Speaking and Writing it with Propriety and Accuracy. With a Variety of Exercises, Designed as Practical Illustrations of the Various Rules. To which is subjoined, A Copious List of Solecisms, or Vulgar and Erroneous Modes of Expression. Catechism of English Grammar Simpkin and Marshall, Stationers-court, Ludgate-hill; Birkett and Scott, 27, Norton Folgate; Bowdery and Kerby, 190, Oxford-street; Tabart, Bond-street; Wright and Cruickshank, Liverpool; Thomson, Manchester; and Wrightson, Birmingham London 1818 1818 1 88 English British English Teaching Grammar Catechism School Beginner THE CATECHISM OF English Grammar; Containing the principles of the language, AND RULES AND DIRECTIONS For speaking and writing it with propriety and accuracy. WITH A VARIETY OF EXERCISES, Designed as Practical Illustration, of the various Rules.TO WHICH IS SUBJOINED, A Copious List of Solecisms, or Vulgar and Erroneous Modes of Expression.By the Rev. DAVID WILLIAMS, M. A.LONDON: Published by Simpkin and Marshall, Stationers-court, Ludgate-hill; Birkett and Scott, 27, Norton Folgate; Bowdery and Kerby, 190, Oxford-street; Tabart, Bond-street; Wright and Cruickshank, Liverpool; Thomson, Manchester; and Wrightson, Birmingham. Price 18d. Bound. 1818. PREFACE. The following little Manual of English Grammar was compiled for the use of its author's pupils. He is willing to believe, that it is calculated to convey a correct and competent knowledge of the subject of which it professes to treat; and he apprehends, that the discerning Teacher will perceive that the subject is treated in a more inviting, as well as a more systematic, manner, than is the case with the generality of compilations of a like nature. Neither has he any doubt, notwithstanding its confined limits, but that it will be found as full and comprehensive as many similar books of much larger dimensions. Of the improvements and additions he has made, he forbears to make mention: to those acquainted with the various publications on English Grammar, they require no index. "The great art of education," says a pious and excellent Divine, "is to lighten the burden of the work, and render it agreeable and pleasant; and nothing is better adapted to fix in the minds of children what they read, than interrogating them concerning it." The truth of this observation is known to all those who have had experience in the business of education. Questions rouse the attention, and lead to reflection. They stimulate the learner to examine the sense and meaning of what he reads, and tend to fix the memory better than can be accomplished by mere rehearsal or repetition. Satisfied of the utility, as well as efficiency, of this mode of instruction, the Compiler of the ensuing little work has thrown it into the form of question and answer. The Catechism of English Grammar. Introductory Questions. WHAT is meant by Grammar? The construction of language according to certain established rules. Of how many parts does Grammar consist? Of six. Mention them. Orthoëpy, Orthography, Derivation or Etymology, Accidence, Syntax, and Prosody. What is meant by Orthoëpy? The proper pronunciation of letters, syllables, and words. What does Orthography teach? The correct method of spelling and dividing Words. What are the constituent parts of words? Letters and syllables. What is a letter? An arbitrary character, forming the least constituent part of a word or syllable. How many letters are there in the English language? Twenty six. Mention them. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, V, U, W, X, Y, Z. How are these letters divided? Into vowels and consonants. What is the number of vowels? Five. Mention them. a, e, i, o, u. Sometimes w and y are vowels. When are w and y used as vowels? When they occur between two vowels; as ewe, eye. In all other cases they are consonants. What is a vowel? A letter which forms a perfect articulate sound of itself. What is meant by a consonant? A letter which cannot form a distinct articulate sound of itself, without the aid of a vowel. How many consonants are there in the English language? Twenty one. Mention them. B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Y, and Z. How are consonants distinguished? Into mutes and semivowels. What is meant by a mute? A letter which has no sound, without the aid of a vowel. Mention the consonants which are termed mutes. b, d, k, p, t, and c and g hard. What is meant by a semivowel? A letter which cannot be perfectly sounded by itself. Which are the semivowels? f, l, m, n, r, s, v, x, z, and c and g soft. Are there no other distinctions of the consonants in use? Yes: those of labial, dental, palatal, and nasal. Which are the labial consonants? Those which are sounded by the lips; as b, p, f, and v. Which the dental? Those which are sounded by the teeth; as d and t. Which are the palatal? Those which are sounded by the tongue against the palate or roof of the month; as g, k, l, r, s and z. Which the nasal? Those which are sounded through the nose; as m and n. What is meant by a syllable? A sound which is pronounced by a single impulse of the voice. Of what are syllables composed? Of the intermixture of vowels and consonants, or entirely of vowels; in which latter case the union of the vowels is called a diphthong, or a triphthong, according to their occurrence. What is a diphthong? The meeting of two vowels in a word or syllable; as ea in head, ou in soul. What is a triphthong? The meeting of three vowels in a word or syllable; as eau in beau, ieu in lieu. What are the distinctions of words? Those of monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, and polysyllables. Words are also primitive, derivative, or compound. What is meant by a monosyllable? A word of one syllable; as man, boy, girl, &c. What by a dissyllable? A word of two syllables; as woman, husband, brother, &c. What by a trisyllable?A word of three syllables; as schoolmaster, general, publican, &c. What by a polysyllable? A word of many syllables; as Mahometan, transfiguration, incomprehensibility, &c. What by a primitive word? The original terms or denominations of ideas or objects; as man, boy, virtue, vice, &c. What by a derivative word? A word derived from another; as manhood, delightful, peaceable, &c. What by a compound word? A word composed of two or more words; as shipwright, schoolmaster, teacup, &c. Mention the principal rules for the just spelling of words in the English language. 1st. That monosyllables ending with the consonants f, l, or s, following a single vowel, always double the consonant; as staff, muff, ball, mill, lass, pass. &c. except as, is, if, of, his, has, was, this, thus, us, and yes. But when more than one vowel precedes the final consonant, that consonant is not doubled; as foot, roof, root, &c. 2dly. Monosyllables ending with any consonant: except f, l, or s, immediately following a single vowel, end with a single vowel; as map, bag, gig, gun, pit, fox, &c. except add, butt, bunn, ebb, egg, err, inn, odd, purr, and buzz. 3dly. Derivatives from words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change y into i; as happy, happier; mercy, merciless; lady, ladies; bury, burial; fancy, fancies; &c. But derivatives ending in the participle ing, do not change the y; as carry, carrying; supply, supplying; &c. Neither is the y changed in words ending with that letter, if it be preceded by a vowel, as play, plays; toy, toys; stay, stays; joy, joyful; &c.; except in lay, pay, and say, from which are formed laid, paid, and said. 4thly. Monosyllables and words, having the accent on the last syllable, and ending with a single consonant immediately following a single vowel, double the consonant when they become derivatives; as bet, betted; drag, dragged; drop, dropped; commit, committed; begin, beginner; concur, concurred; intermit, intermitted; &c. 5thly. Words ending with any double letter, except ll, and taking ness, less, ly, or ful after them, retain the double letter; as heartlessness, successful, carelessly, &c. But words ending with ll, lose one of the l's should the syllable ness, less, ly, or ful be added to them; as fulness, skilful, &c. 6thly. When ness, less, ly, and ful are added to words ending with a silent e, the silent e is retained; as sedateness, securely, peaceful, &c. But the words duly, truly, awful are exceptions to the rule. 7thly. In the addition of ment to words ending with a silent e, the e is retained in the orthography; as arrangement, chastisement, &c. But judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are by most writers considered as deviations from the rule. When ment is added to words ending with y preceded by a consonant, the y is changed into an i; as accompaniment, merriment, &c. 8thly. When able and ible, and ing and ish are appended to words ending with a silent e, the e is almost generally dropped; as blamable, sensible, lodging, obliging, &c. But when c or g precede the silent e in the primitive word, the e is then retained in words compounded with able; as changeable, peaceable, chargeable chargeble, &c. 9thly. Words compounded of two primitive words, if such primitive words end with a double consonant, generally drop the mute consonant; as fulfil, chilblain, handful, foretel, &c. Of Etymology and Derivation. What is the meaning of Etymology? The derivation of words, and their forms and changes. What is the derivation of the generality of words in the English language? From the Latin. Mention the words in the English language which are derived from the Latin. Those ending in ation, etion, ition, otion, ution; in ty, ure, ude, and, or, or our. Those which are derived from the Greek? Nouns ending in y, which have ch in them, and which begin with and, cy, hy, phi, py, sy, ty, or z. What English words have been chiefly derived from the Saxon? Monosyllables. What from the French? Many words beginning with ch; as chagrin, chaise, &c. Of Accidence. What is meant by the expression "Accidence." The modification of words; namely the declension of nouns and pronouns, and the formation or conjugation of verbs. How many kinds of words are there in the English language? Nine. How are they called? Parts of Speech. Name them. Article, noun or substantive, adnoun or adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. Of the Article. What is the article? A word prefixed to nouns to define the precise meaning in which the noun is used; as a man, an eye, the woman. How many kinds of articles are there in the English language? Two, a or an, and the; the former of which is styled the indefinite article, the latter the definite article. Why is the article a changed into an before words beginning with a vowel or a silent h? For sound’s sake. Mention the words beginning with an h in which the h is not aspirated. Heir, heiress, honour, honourable, herb, hospital, hostler, hour, humble, honest, &c. When is the article a used before a word beginning with a vowel? In words beginning with an u long; as a university; so also in the words useful, universal. 2dly. When o takes the sound of w, as such a-one; and 3dly. When e is sounded like y, as a Eurepean, a ewe. Of Nouns or Substantives. What is a noun or substantive? A word which expresses the names of persons, places, or things; as George, man, London, England, book, pen, &c. How many kinds of nouns or substantives are there? Two; proper and common. What is meant by a substantive proper? The name of any particular person, place, or thing; as George, London, Thames, &c. What by a substantive common? The name of any thing, being, or object which we see, or discourse of; as book, man, church, house, &c. What are the properties of nouns or substantives? Gender, number, and case. Of Gender. How many genders have substantives? Three; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. What is the masculine gender used to express? Persons or animals of the male kind; as a man, a horse, a lion. What the feminine gender? Persons or animals of the female kind; as a woman, a mare, a bitch. What the neuter gender? Inanimate things; as a house, a table, a book. Are there no exceptions in which inanimate things are used as if of the masculine and feminine gender? Yes: the sun and time are in general used as of the masculine gender; but the moon, the earth, a ship, as also virtue, fortune, and the church, are used as of the feminine gender. By how many methods is gender distinguished in the English language? By three: 1st, by the variation of words; 2dly, by the difference of termination; and 3dly, by compounding words. Mention those nouns of which the gender is expressed by a variation of words. Male Female Bachelor Maid Boar Sow Boy Girl Bridegroom Bride Brother Sister Buck Doe Bull Cow Bullock or Steer Heifer Cock Hen Dog Bitch Drake Duck Duke Duchess Earl Countess Father Mother Friar Nun Gander Goose Hart Roe Horse Mare Husband Wife King Queen Lad Lass Lord Lady Man Woman Marquis Marchioness Master Mistress Nephew Niece Ram Ewe Singer Singer Sloven Slut Son Daughter Stag Hind Uncle Aunt Widower Widow Wizard Witch
Mention those of which the gender is expressed by a difference of termination. Male Female Abbott Abbess Actor Actress Adulterer Adulteress Ambassador Ambassadress Arbiter Arbitress Baron Baroness Benefactor Benefactress Chanter Chantress Conductor Conductress Count Countess Deacon Deaconess Elector Electress Emperor Empress Enchanter Enchantress Governor Governess Heir Heiress Hunter Huntress Host Hostess Jew Jewess Lion Lioness Master Mistress Mayor Mayoress Patron Patroness Peer Peeress Poet Poetess Priest Priestess Prince Princess Prior Prioress Prophet Prophetess Protector Protectress Shepherd Shepherdess Songster Songstress Sorcerer Sorceress Sultan Sultaness Tiger Tigress Traitor Traitress Tutor Tutress Viscount Viscountess Votary Votaress
But the feminine gender of administrator is administratrix; of executor, executrix; of hero, heroine; and of landgrave, the feminine is landgravine. Mention the nouns of which the genders are expressed by compounded words. A cock-sparrow A hen-sparrow A he-goat A she-goat A male-child A female-child A male-servant A female-servant A man-servant A maid-servant Male-descendants Female-descendants
Are there not such genders in the English language as the common and doubtful genders? Yes. What it meant by the common gender? When the same word is used as either masculine or feminine, as parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbour, servant, &c. What is meant by the doubtful gender? When the sex of the person, or animal spoken of is not known; as when we speak of an infant, the word it is applied to distinguish the sex. So of an animal. Obs. The introduction of the common or doubtful genders into a compilation on English Grammar is unusual; but the Compiler of the Catechism of English Grammar apprehends, that the bare mention of the above examples prove, that their omission is an unpardonable oversight in the compilations already extant on the subject. Of Number. What is meant by the grammatical expression "Number?" The idea of unity or plurality; that is whether the subject spoken of consists of one or more than one. How many numbers are there? Two; the singular and the plural. When is the singular number used? When but one person, thing, or place is spoken of; as a man, a horse, &c. When the plural? When more than one person, thing, or place is spoken of; as men, horses, &c. How are nouns converted from the singular number into the plural? In general, by the addition of s to the singular; as book, books; horse, horses; face, faces. But when the singular ends in h, o, ss, or x, the plural is formed by adding es; as coach, coaches; potato, potatoes; kiss, kisses; box, boxes. The plurals of folio, nuncio, punctilio, and seraglio, are written with the addition only of an s; as folios, &c. How is the plural formed when the singular ends in f or fe? In ves; as loaf, loaves; calf, calves; half, halves; wife, wives; thief, thieves. But grief, brief, relief, proof, scarf, wharf, gulf, turf, and several others, form the plural by the addition of s to the singular; as griefs, &c. How is the plural formed when the singular ends in ff? By the addition of s; as snuff, snuffs; muff, muffs; stuff, stuffs. But staff makes staves. How is the plural formed when the singular ends in y? By changing the y into ies; as fly, flies; lady, ladies; lily, lilies; conveniency, conveniencies. But if a vowel immediately precedes the y, the plural is formed by the addition only of s to the singular; as boy, boys; key, keys; journey, journeys; valley, valleys, &c. Are there not some words which form their plurals irregularly? Yes: man in the plural is men; woman women; child, children; ox, oxen; alderman, aldermen; brother, brethren or brothers; foot, feet; goose, geese; penny, pence or pennies; tooth, teeth; die, dice; die, dies; louse, lice; mouse, mice. Also the following Hebrew, (Greek, Latin, and French words form their plurals in the same manner as they do in the original languages. Antithesis makes antitheses; appendix, appendices or appendixes; arcanum, arcana; automaton, automata; axis, axes; basis, bases; beau, beaux; calx, calces; cherub, cherubim; crisis, crises; datum, data; effluvium, effluvia; ellipsis, ellipses; emphasis, emphases: encomium, encomia or encomiums; erratum, errata; genius, genii or geniuses; genus, genera; hypothesis, hypotheses; index, indices or indexes; lamina, laminœ; magus, magi; medium, media or mediums; memorandum, memorandums or memoranda; metamorphosis, metamorphoses; phenomenon, phenomena; radius, radii; seraph, seraphim; stamen, stamina; stratum, strata; vortex, vortices. Are there not some nouns which have not the plural number? Yes. Mention them: Wheat, pitch, gold, silver, copper, iron, sloth, pride, &c. Mention those which hare not the singular number. Deer, sheep, swine, series, species, apparatus, literati, minutiӕ, &c. Of Case. How many cases have nouns in the English language? Three: the nominative, the genitive or possessive, and the accusative or objective. How are these cases distinguished? The nominative case is the subject of the sentence, and usually precedes the verb; the genitive or possessive betokens the possession of some quality or property, and generally precedes the substantive which governs it; and the accusative or possessive expresses the object of an action, passion, or relation, and commonly follows a verb active or a preposition. What is the meaning of the term "Case of a noun?" The different terminations or inflections to which it is subject. How is the genitive case formed? By the addition of s to the nominative, with an apostrophe over the s; as John's hat; the boy's book. But when the genitive case plural of a noun ending in s is to be expressed, the apostrophic s is omitted, and the apostrophe alone used; as the tailors' company; the boys' hats. Obs. — The generality of Compilers of English Grammar direct, that when a singular noun ends in ss, the apostrophic s should be omitted, and the apostrophe alone used, as in these examples "for goodness' sake," "for righteousness' sake." That this direction is improper, is clear from the unpleasant hissing sound occasioned in the pronunciation of the sentences thus placed. This inconvenience may be avoided by arranging the sentences thus; for the sake of righteousness; for the sake of goodness. In colloquial expressions, however, the genitive case of a noun ending in ss may be expressed either way; but when expressed by the apostrophe, the apostrophe s should not be omitted. Thus the expression "the advice of your mistress," or "your mistress's advice" is equally proper. How is the accusative or objective case formed? It is governed by the verb or preposition. But the only words in the English language which alter the termination of the nominative in the formation of the accusative case, are the personal pronouns I, thou, he or she, we, ye or you, and they; and the relative pronoun who. Decline the nouns or substantives father and son. Singular Plural Nom. Father Fathers Gen. or Poss. Father's Fathers' Acc. or Object. Father Fathers Nom. Son Sons Gen. or Poss. Son's Sons' Acc. or Object. Son Sons
Of Adnouns or Adjectives. What is an adnoun or adjective? A word, which when joined to a substantive, expresses its nature or quality; as a virtuous woman; a handsome girl. What is the property of an adjective? Only comparison; for in English, adjectives are not varied in their terminations as to gender, number, or case. How many degrees of comparison are there? Three; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. What does the positive degree express? Simply the quality of the subject or thing spoken of; as wise, good, happy, &c. What the comparative? The signification of the positive, increased or diminished in a greater or less degree; as wiser, smaller, &c. When is the comparative degree used? When only two things are compared; as he is wiser than I; she is the more prudent of the two. What does the superlative degree express? The signification of the positive, increased or lessened to the greatest or least degree; as wisest, least, &c. How are the degrees of comparison formed? In monosyllables, the comparative is formed from the positive by adding r to the positive, if it ends with a silent e; and er, if it ends with a consonant; as wise, wiser; great, greater. The superlative is formed by adding st and est to the positive; as wise, wisest; great, greatest, &c. How are dissyllables and polysyllables compared? By more and most; as splendid, more splendid, most splendid; convenient, more convenient, most convenient. But dissyllables ending in y, or in le after a mute, or accented on the last syllable, are generally compared by r or er, and st or est; as happy, happier, happiest; base, baser, basest; polite, politer, politest. Are there not some adjectives which form the degrees of comparison irregularly? Yes. Mention them! Positive Comparative Superlative Good Better Best Bad Worse Worst Little Less Least Much or many More Most Near Nearer Nearest or next Late Later Latest or last Old Older or elder Oldest or eldest
Are there not some adjectives in the English language which do not admit of comparison? Yes; such as express a finite and superlative sense in themselves; as perfect, superior, infinite, chief, right, universal, extreme, supreme, and some others; and therefore the expressions chiefest, supremest, most perfect, more superior, extremest, &c. are inaccurate. Of Pronouns. What is the use of the pronoun? It is a substitute for the noun, and is used to avoid the repetition of the same noun; as we say Death is certain; it awaits us all, instead of saying death is certain; death awaits us all. How many kinds of pronouns are there? Three; the personal, the relative, and the adjective pronouns. What are the properties of pronouns? Person, number, gender, and case. How many personal pronouns are there? Five; I, thou or you, he, she, and it, we, ye or you, and they. Decline the personal pronoun I. Nom. Gen. Acc. Singular I Mine Me Plural We Ours Us
Decline thou or you. Singular Thou or you Thine or yours Thee or you Plural Ye our you Yours You
Decline he. Singular He His Him Plural They Theirs Them
Decline she. Singular She Hers Her Plural They Theirs Them
Decline it. Singular It Its It Plural They Theirs Them
Mention the relative pronouns. Who, which, what, and that; of which only the first is declinable. Decline who. Nom. Gen. Acc. Singular & Plural Who Whose Whom
Decline whoever. Singular & Plural Whoever Whosoever Whomsoever
How are the adjective pronouns subdivided? Into the possessive, the distributive, and the demonstrative. Which are the possessive pronouns? My, thy, his, her, our, your, and their. Which are the distributive? Each, every, either and neither. Which are the demonstrative? This and that, with their plurals these and those. Of Verbs. What is a verb? A word which describes the action, passion, or existence of the agent; as I fight; I love; I live, &c. How many sorts of verbs belong to the English language? Three; the active or transitive, the passive, and the neuter or intransitive. What is meant by an active or transitive verb? A word which expresses some action or passion; as I move, I love, &c. What by a passive verb? A word which betokens the receiving of an action or passion; as I am moved, I am loved, &c. What by a verb neuter? A verb which betokens neither action nor passion, but merely a state of being; as I exist, I sleep, I drink, &c. Are there no other subdivisions of verbs? Yes: those of auxiliary or helping verbs, and principal verbs; as also those of regular and irregular verbs. Verbs are also said to be personal and impersonal. What are the properties of verbs? Number, person, mood, tense, voice, and conjugation. How many numbers have verbs? Two; the singular and the plural. How many persons? Three in each number; as I, thou or you, he, she, or it in the singular; and in the plural, we, ye or you, and they. How many moods belong to English verbs? Five: the indicative, the imperative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the infinitive. What is mood? The change which a verb undergoes to express the various modifications and circumstances of action, passion, or being. When is the indicative mood used? When we declare any thing positively, or ask a question; as I love, I write, or do I love? do I write? When the imperative mood? When we command, exhort, entreat; as write, speak, &c. What does the potential mood signify? The possibility, power, will, or obligation of acting, and it is known by the signs, may, can, might, could, would, should; as I may speak, I can write, I could eat, &c. What does the subjunctive mood imply? A doubt, condition, wish, or supposition, and is preceded by if, though, unless, or some other conjunction expressed or understood as if he come, though he fail, I wish he were to come, if it happen, &c. What does the infinitive mood express? The form of the verb in a general manner, and it is known by being preceded by the preposition to; as to write, to speak &c. How many participles are there belonging to English verbs? Three; the present or active, the perfect or past, and the compound perfect; as loving, loved, having loved, &c. What is meant by the expression "the tense of a verb?" The manner in which the several distinctions or gradations of time can be expressed. How many tenses have English verbs? Six; the present, the imperfect or preterimperfect, the perfect or preterperfect, the pluperfect or preterpluperfect, the future-imperfect, and the future-perfect. How are the tenses known? By their signs. What are the signs of the tenses? Am or do of the present tense; did or was of the imperfect or preterimperfect; have of the perfect or preterperfect; had of the pluperfect or preterpluperfect; shall or will of the future-imperfect; and shall or will have of the future-perfect. How many voices are there in the English language? Two; the active and the passive; which are distinguished according as the affirmation regards something that is done or something that is suffered; as I love, or I am loved. What is the meaning of conjugation? The various modifications which a verb takes, with reference to the time and manner of the action to be described. You said, that besides subdividing verbs into active, passive, and neuter, verbs were also divided into auxiliary or helping verbs, and principal verbs; as also into regular and irregular verbs. What is meant by auxiliary or helping verbs? A word prefixed to express the times or tenses of verbs. They are be, can, do, have, let, may, must, shall, and will; all which, except be and have, are defective in the tenses, having only the present and perfect tenses; and let and must have no variation at all. Form these auxiliary verbs. Present Perfect Can Could Do Did May Might Shall Should Will Would
When is a verb said to be regular and when irregular? All verbs are regular which form their imperfect tense and perfect or past participle in d or ed; irregular verbs are such as do not form their imperfect tense and perfect or past participle in d or ed; as present begin, imperfect began, perfect or past participle begun. What is the distinction of a personal and an impersonal verb? Personal verbs are conjugated with the personal pronouns, or some noun; but verbs impersonal admit of no other nominative case in the conjugating of them than the pronoun it; as it behoves, it happens, it seems, &c. Conjugate the auxiliary or neuter verb to be. Indicative Mood Present Tense Singular Plural I am We are Thou art, or you are Ye or you are He, she, or it is They are
Imperfect or Preterimperfect Singular Plural I was We were Thou wast, or you were Ye or you were He was They were
Perfect or Preterperfect Singular Plural I have been We have been Thou hast been, or you have been Ye or you have been He has been They have been
Pluperfect or Preterpluperfect Singular Plural I had been We had been Thou hadst been, or you had been Ye or you had been He had been They had been
Future-Imperfect Singular Plural I shall or will be We shall or will be Thou shalt or wilt be, or you shall or will be Ye or you shall or will be He shall or will be They shall or will be
Future-Perfect Singular Plural I shall or will have been We shall or will have been Thou shalt or wilt have been, or you shall or will have been Ye or you shall or will have been He shall or will have been They shall or will have been
Imperative Mood Singular Plural Let me be Let us be Be thou or do thou be, or be you or do you be Be ye or you, or do ye or you be Let him be Let them be
Potential Mood Present Tense Singular Plural I may or can be We may or can be Thou mayst or canst be, or you may or can be Ye or you may or can be He may or can be They may or can be
Imperfect or Preterimperfect Singular Plural I might, could, would, or should be We might, could, would, or should be Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be; or you might, could, would or should be Ye or you might, could, would, or should be He might, could, would, or should be They might, could, would, or should be
Perfect or Preterperfect Singular Plural I may or can have been We may or can have been Thou mayst or canst have been; or you may or can have been Ye or you may or can have been He may or can have been They may or can have been
Pluperfect or Preterpluperfect Singular Plural I might, could, would, or should have been We might, could, would, or should have been Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been; or you might, could, would, or should have been Ye or you might, could, would, or should have been He might, could, would, or should have been They might, could, would, or should have been
Subjunctive Mood Present Time Singular Plural If I be If we be If thou or you be If ye or you be If he be If they be
Imperfect or Preterimperfect Singular Plural If I were If we were If thou or you were If ye or you were If he were If they were
Obs. — The remaining tenses of this mood are conjugated in a manner similar to the correspondent tenses of the Indicative Mood, with the addition of the conjunction. Infinitive Mood Present Perfect or Past To be To have been
Participles Present Perfect or Past Compound Being Been Having Been
Conjugate the auxiliary verb to have. Indicative Mood Present Tense Singular Plural I have We have Thou hast, or you have Ye or you have He, she, or it hath or has They have
Imperfect or Preterimperfect Singular Plural I had We had Thou hadst, or you had Ye or you had He had They had
Perfect or Preterperfect Singular Plural I have had We have had Thou hast had, or you have had Ye or you have had He hath or has had They have had
Pluperfect or Preterpluperfect Singular Plural I had had We had had Thou hadst had, or you had had Ye or you had had He hath or had had They had had
Future-Imperfect Singular Plural I shall or will have We shall or will have Thou shalt or wilt have, or you shall or will have Ye or you shall or will have He shall or will have They shall or will have
Future-Perfect Singular Plural I shall or will have had We shall or will have had Thou shalt or wilt have had, or you shall or will have had Ye or you shall or will have had He shall or will have had They shall or will have had
Imperative Mood Singular Plural Let me have Let us have Have thou or do thou have, or have you or do you have Have ye or you, or do ye or you have Let him have Let them have
Potential Mood Present Tense Singular Plural I may or can have We may or can have Thou mayst or canst have, or you may or can have Ye or you may or can have He may or can have They may or can have
Imperfect or Preterimperfect Singular Plural I might, could, would, or should have We might, could, would, or should have Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have; or you might, could, would or should have Ye or you might, could, would, or should have He might, could, would, or should have They might, could, would, or should have
Perfect or Preterperfect Singular Plural I may or can have had We may or can have had Thou mayst or canst have had; or you may or can have had Ye or you may or can had been He may or can have had They may or can have had
Pluperfect or Preterpluperfect Singular Plural I might, could, would, or should have had We might, could, would, or should have had Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have had; or you might, could, would, or should have had Ye or you might, could, would, or should have had He might, could, would, or should have had They might, could, would, or should have had
Subjunctive Mood Present Time Singular Plural If I have If we have If thou have, or you have If ye or you have If he have If they have
Obs. The remaining tenses of this mood are conjugated in a manner similar to the correspondent tenses of the Indicative Mood, with the addition of the conjunction. Infinitive Mood Present Perfect or Past To have To have had
Participles Present Perfect or Past Compound Having had Having had
Active Voice. To Love. Indicative Mood. Present Tense. Singular Plural I love, am loving, or do love We love, are loving, or do love Thou lovest, art loving, or dost love; or you love, are loving, or do love Ye or you love, are loving, or do love He loves, is loving, or does love They love, are loving or o do love
Imperfect or Preterimperfect. Singular Plural I loved, was loving, or did love We loved, were loving, or did love Thou lovedst, wast loving, or didst love; or you loved, were loving, or did love Ye or you loved, were loving, or did love He loved, was loving, or did love They loved, were loving or did love
Perfect or Preterperfect. Singular Plural I have loved We have loved. Thou hast loved, or you have loved Ye or you have loved He has loved They have loved
Perfect or Preterperfect. Singular Plural I had loved We had loved Thou hadst loved, or you had loved Ye or you had loved He had loved They had loved
Future-Imperfect. Singular Plural I shall or will love We shall or will love Thou shalt or wilt will love, or you shall or will love Ye or you shall or will love He shall or will love They shall or will love
Future-Perfect. Singular Plural I shall or will have loved We shall or will have loved Thou shalt or wilt will have loved, or you shall or will have loved Ye or you shall or will have loved He shall or will have loved They shall or will have loved
Imperative Mood. Singular Plural Let me love Let us love Love, love thou or you, or do thou or you love Love ye or you, or do ye or you love Let him love Let them love
Potential Mood. Present Tense. Singular Plural I may or can love We may or can love Thou mayst or canst love, or you may or can love Ye or you may or can love He may or can love They may or can love
Imperfect or Preterimperfect. Singular Plural I might, could, would, or should love We might, could, would, or should love Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love; or you might, could, would, or should love Ye or you might, could, would, or should love He might, could, would, or should love They might, could, would, or should love
Perfect or Preterperfect. Singular Plural I may or can have loved We may or can have loved Thou mayst or canst have loved; or you may or can have loved Ye or you may or can have loved He may or can have loved They may or can have loved
Pluperfect or Preterpluperfect. Singular Plural I might, could, would, or should have loved We might, could, would, or should have loved Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have loved; or you might, could, would, or should have loved Ye or you might, could, would, or should have loved He might, could, would, or should have loved They might, could, would, or should have loved
Subjunctive Mood. Present Tense. Singular Plural If I love I we love If thou love, or if you love If ye or you love If he love If they love
Imperfect or Preterimperfect. Singular Plural If I loved I we loved If thou loved, or if you loved If ye or you loved If he loved If they loved
Perfect or Preterperfect. Singular Plural If I have loved I we have loved If thou have loved, or if you have loved If ye or you have loved If he have loved If they have loved love
Note. The remaining tenses of this mood are conjugated in a similar manner to those of the Indicative Mood. Infinitive Mood. Present Perfect or Past To love To have loved
Participles. Present Perfect Compound Perfect Loving Loved Having loved.
Passive Voice. How is a passive verb conjugated? By annexing the inflections of the auxiliary verb to be, through all its changes of person, mood, and tense to the perfect or past participle of the active voice of the verb to be conjugated. How are passive verbs formed? By the addition of d or ed to the active verb. TO BE LOVED. Indicative Mood. Present Tense. Singular Plural I am loved We are loved Thou art loved, or you are loved Ye or you are loved He is loved They are loved
Imperfect or Preterimperfect. Singular Plural I was loved We were loved Thou wast loved, or you were loved Ye or you were loved He was loved They were loved
Perfect or Preterperfect Singular Plural I have been loved We have been loved Thou hast been loved, or you have been loved Ye or you have been loved He has been loved They have been loved
Pluperfect or Preterpluperfect Singular Plural I had been loved We had been loved Thou hadst been loved, or you had been loved Ye or you had been loved He had been loved They had been loved
Future-Imperfect Singular Plural I shall or will be loved We shall or will be loved Thou shalt or wilt be loved, or you shall or will be loved Ye or you shall or will be loved He shall or will be loved They shall or will be loved
Future-Perfect Singular Plural I shall have been loved We shall have been loved Thou wilt have been loved, or you will have been loved Ye or you will have been loved He will have been loved They will have been loved
Imperative Mood. Singular Plural Let me be loved Let us be loved Be thou loved, or do thou be loved Be ye or you, or do ye or you, be loved Let him be loved Let them be loved
Potential Mood. Present Tense. Singular Plural I may or can be loved We may or can be loved Thou We mayst or canst be loved, or you may or can be loved Ye or you may or can be loved He may or can be loved They may or can be loved
Imperfect or Preterimperfect. Singular Plural I might, could, would, or should be loved We might, could, would, or should be loved Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be loved; or you might, could, would, or should be loved Ye or you might, could, would, or should be loved He might, could, would, or should be loved They might, could, would, or should be loved
Perfect or Preterperfect. Singular Plural I may or can have been loved We may or can have been loved Thou We mayst or canst have been loved, or you may or can have been loved Ye or you may or can have been loved He may or can have been loved They may or can have been loved
Pluperfect or Preterpluperfect. Singular Plural I might, could, would, or should have been loved We might, could, would, or should have been loved Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been loved; or you might, could, would, or should have been loved Ye or you might, could, would, or should have been loved He might, could, would, or should have been loved They might, could, would, or should have been loved
Subjunctive Mood. Present Tense. Singular Plural If I be loved If we be loved If thou or you be loved If ye or you be loved If he be loved If they be loved
Imperfect or Preterimperfect Singular Plural If I were loved If we were loved If thou wert loved, or if you were loved If ye or you were loved If he were loved If they were loved
Note. The remaining tenses of this mood are conjugated similarly to those of the Indicative Mood. Infinitive Mood Present Perfect or Past To be loved To have been loved
Participles Present Perfect or Past Compound Being loved Loved Having been loved
Irregular Verbs. What is meant by an irregular verb? Such a verb as does not form its imperfect or past tense, and perfect participle, by d or ed; as present I write, perfect, I wrote; perfect participle, I have written. Conjugate the irregular verb to write. Indicative Mood Present Tense. Singular Plural I write We write Thou writest, or you write Ye or you write He writes They write
Imperfect or Preterimperfect. Singular Plural I wrote We wrote Thou wrotest, or you wrote Ye or you wrote He wrotes They wrote
Infinitive Mood. Present Perfect or Past To write To have written
How are all the other moods and tenses of this irregular verb conjugated? In the same manner as in the case of regular verbs. You have now conjugated a regular verb through both voices, as also an irregular verb. Can you give a list of irregular verbs? Yes. Mention them. Present Tense Perfect or Past Tense Perfect or Past Participle Abide abode abode Am was been Arise arose arisen Awake awoke or awaked awaked Bear (to bring forth) bare born Bear (to carry) bore borne Beat beat beaten, or beat Begin began begun Bend bent bent Bereave bereft bereft or bereaved Beseech besought besought Bid bid, or bade bidden, or bid Bind bound bound Bite bit bitten, or bit Bleed bled bled Blow blew blown Break broke broken Breed bred bred Bring brought brought Build built built Burst burst burst Buy bought bought Cast cast cast Catch caught caught or catched Chide chid chidden, or chid Cling clung clung Come came come Cost cost cost Creep crept crept Choose chose chosen Cleave (to split) clove, or cleft cleft, or cloven Clothe clothed clothed or clad Cut cut cut Dare (to venture) durst dared Deal dealt dealt Dig dug or digged dug or digged Do did done Draw drew drawn Drive drove driven Drink drank drunk Dwell dwelt dwelt Eat eat, or ate eaten Fall fell fallen Feed fed fed Feel felt felt Fight fought fought Find found found Flee fled fled Fling flung flung Fly flew flown Forget forgot forgotten, or forgot Forsake forsook forsaken Freeze froze frozen Get got got Gild gilt gilt or gilded Gird girt girt Give gave given Go went gone Grave graved graven Grind ground ground Grow grew grown Hang hung or hanged hung or hanged Have had had Hear heard heard Help helped helped Hew hewed hewn Hide hid hidden, or hid Hit hit hit Hold held held or holden Hurt hurt hurt Keep kept kept Knit knit knit or knitted Know knew known Lade laded laden Lay laid laid Lead led led Leave left left Lend lent lent Let let let Lie lay lain Load loaded laden or loaded Lose lost lost Make made made Meet met met Mow mowed mown or mowed Pay paid paid Put put put Read read read Reave reft reft or reaved Rend rent rent Rid rid rid Ride rode rid, rode, or ridden Ring rung, or rang rung Rise rose risen Rive rived riven Run ran run Saw sawed sawn or sawed Say said said See saw seen Seek sought sought Sell sold sold Send sent sent Set set set Sew sewed sewed or sewn Shake shook shook or shaken Shape shaped shaped, or shapen Shave shaved shaven or shaved Shear sheared shorn Shed shed shed Shine shone shone Show showed shown Shoe shod shod Shoot shot shot Shred shred shred Shrink shrunk or shrank shrunk Shut shut shut Sing sung, or sang sung Sink sank or sunk sunk Sit sat sat Slay Slew slain Sleep slept slept Sling slung slung Slide slid slid or slidden Slit slit slit or slitted Slink slunk slunk Smite smote smitten Sow sowed sown or sowed Speak spake or spoke spoken Speed sped sped Spend spent spent Spill spilt spilt or spilled Spin spun, or span spun Spit spit or spat spit or spitten Split split split or splitted Spread spread spread Steal stole stolen Stand stood stood Stick stuck stuck Sting stung stung Stride strode or strid stridden Strike struck struck or stricken String strung strung Strive strove striven Swear swore sworn Sweat sweated or swet sweated or swet Swell swelled swollen or swelled Swing swung, or swang swung Swim swam or swum swum Take took taken Teach taught taught Tear tore torn Tell told told Think thought thought Throw threw thrown Thrive throve throve or thriven Thrust thrust thrust Tread trod trod or trodden Wear wore worn Wax waxed waxen Weave wove woven or weaved Weep wept wept Win won won Wind wound wound Work worked or wrought worked or wrought Wring wrung wrung Write wrote written
How can you distinguish whether a word be a substantive, an adjective, or a verb? If the articles a, an, or the be prefixed to a word, and it makes sense of itself, it is a substantive; an adjective may be distinguished by its making sense when the word thing is subjoined to it; and the method of ascertaining a verb is, if it makes sense with the word to or any of the personal pronouns prefixed to it. Of the Adverb. What is an adverb? A word added to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, to explain or qualify their signification; as I write correctly; a really virtuous woman, &c. How are adverbs divided? Generally into eleven classes; namely, of number, order, place, time, quantity, quality, doubt or contingency, affirmation, negation, interrogation, and comparison. Which are the adverbs of number? Once, twice, thrice. Which are the adverbs of order? First, secondly, &c.; lastly, finally. Which are the adverbs of place? Here, there, where, hither, thither, whither, hence, thence, whence, and their compounds; with backward, downward, forward, homeward, upward, &c. Which are the adverbs of time? Now, to-day, yesterday, to-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, already, lately, instantly, often, seldom, again, &c. Which are the adverbs of quantity? Much, little, enough, &c. Mention the adverbs of quality. Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, prudently, &c. Which are the adverbs of doubt or contingency coningency? Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, &c. Which are the affirmative adverbs? Undoubtedly, truly, indeed, doubtless, really, surely, yea, yes, &c. Mention the adverbs of negation. No, not, nay, not at all, by no means, nowise. Mention those of interrogation. Why, wherefore, when, how, whether, &c. Which are the adverbs of comparison? More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, least, very, exceedingly, almost, little, &c. Do adverbs admit of comparison? Yes: those which express quality, as also a few others. How are adverbs compared? Those ending in ly are compared by more and most; and monosyllables and dissyllables by er and est; as wisely, more wisely, most wisely; soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest; far, farther, farthest, (when applied to distance), and far, further, furthest (when applied to quantity or addition). Do not some adverbs form their comparison irregularly? Yes: Mention them. Positive Comparative Superlative Well better best Ill worse worst Little less least Much more most
Of the Preposition. What is a preposition? A word which shows the relation which persons, objects, or things bear to one another; as, She is instructed by him. Mention some of the principal prepositions. Above, about, across, against, along, among, at, after, amidst, beneath, behind, between, besides, below, beyond, by, concerning, during, except, for, from, in, into, near, over, to, unto, through, towards, under, within, without, &c. Of the Conjunction. What is a conjunction? A word which connects words and sentences together. How are conjunctions divided? Into two kinds: copulative and disjunctive. Which are the copulative conjunctions? And, if, for, that, both, because, since, therefore, wherefore, inasmuch, forasmuch, &c. Which the disjunctive conjunctions? But, or, not, either, neither, as, than, lest, except, though, although, yet, else, whereas, notwithstanding. Of the Interjection. What is an interjection? A word denoting any sudden affection or emotion of the mind; as Ah! the delusions of hope. O! the humiliation to which vice reduces us. How are interjections divided? Into those of joy, as, hey; of grief, as, ah, alas, alack, O, oh; of wonder, as, ha, strange, really, &c.; of aversion or disgust, as, tush, pish, pshaw, fie, away, begone; of attention, as, hark, lo, behold; of silence, as, hush, hist, silence; of calling, as, O, halloo, soho; of addressing or salutation, as, welcome, hail, all hail; of exultation, as, huzza; of laughter, as, ha, ha, ha; of taking leave, as, adieu, farewell, good bye, &c. Of Syntax. What does Syntax teach? 1st. The concord or agreement of words in a sentence; 2dly, their government or construction; and 3dly, their proper arrangement or collocation. What is meant by concord? The agreement which one word has with another in gender, number, case, person, mood, or tense. What by government or construction? That power or influence which one part of speech has over another, in directing its particular mood, tense, number, or case. Which are the three great concords in all languages? 1st. Between the nominative case and the verb. 2dly. Between the substantive and the adjective. And 3dly. Between the antecedent and the relative. How many may the rules made use of in English syntax for the concord and government of words, be considered? Twenty-five. Mention the first rule of Syntax. The verb must agree with the nominative case in number and person; as I learn, he reads, the boys play, &c. What is meant by the verb agreeing with the nominative case in number and person? Of whatever number and person the nominative case is, of the same number and person must the verb be. Thus, in the first example above mentioned, I learn, I is of the first person, as also of the singular number; therefore, according to the rule, the verb learn must also be of the first person and of the singular number. For this reason, the sentence would be ungrammatical; had it been I learns; because I is of the first person, and learns is a verb of the third person. Correct the following sentences: Is your brothers gone? There remains little hopes of his recovery. The scissars is lost. He dare not do it. There is two or three of them done. In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man. You was told of it before. In his failure was fulfilled all my prognostications. One, added to nineteen, make twenty. Here is likewise represented unto us the manifold blessings of a virtuous life. Neither of these are the meaning of the author. In his conduct a mixture of prudence and folly are conspicuous. The same of his virtue and talents were widely diffused. Nothing delight me so much as the works of nature. Each of these words imply some object or pursuit relinquished. ― Blairs's Belles Lettres. Neither of them are remarkable for precision. ― Ibid. Obs. ― When two or more nouns or pronouns of different persons are the nominative case to the verb, the verb must agree with the first person in preference to the second, and with the second in preference to the third. What is the second rule of Syntax? Every verb ought to have a nominative case, either expressed or understood; and therefore the sentence Who diggeth a pit for his neighbour, shall fall therein, is inaccurate, a nominative case being wanting to the verb shall fall. To be correct, the sentence should be, He who diggeth a pit for his neighbour, shall fall therein. Sometimes the relative pronoun who, is the nominative case to the verb; but when a relative intervenes between the nominative case and the verb, the relative is governed in the accusative case by the verb; as, He whom I love. Correct the following sentences: I who he has injured. The lady who I saw yesterday, is dead. The man who I always respected, has deceived me. He was surrounded by those who he could not trust. Those, who concience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of fortune. What is the third rule of Syntax? Two or more nouns or pronouns, connected together by a copulative conjunction, require a verb plural; as, Religion and virtue confer on the mind, principles of noble independence. What is incorrect in this sentence: "Humility and benevolence constitutes the essence of true religion." The word constitutes; because, as humility and benevolence are the nominative case, the verb must be in the plural number: it should therefore have been constitute, instead of constitutes. Correct the following sentences: Idleness and ignorance is the parent of all vices. Your brother and sister is arrived. What signifies his counsel and care. The king, with the lords and commons, constitutes parliament? Virtue, honour, nay, even self-interest, conspires to recommend the measure. Much does human pride and self-complacency require correction. Mention the fourth rule of Syntax. Nouns or pronouns having a conjunction disjunctive occurring between them, require the verb to be in the singular number; as, Happiness or misery is in a great measure in our own hands. Why is this sentence, "Ignorance or negligence have caused the mistake," ungrammatical? Because, as by Rule I, the verb must agree with the nominative case in number and person, and as here only one of the words ignorance or negligence, is the nominative case to the verb; therefore the word have should be has according to the rule. Correct the following sentences: Neither friend nor foe have power to hurt me. Death, or some worse misfortune, soon divide them.Either his ingratitude or compassion were excited. Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, in his own power. Either he or she are to come. He knows not what spleen, languor, or listlessness are. ― Blair's Sermons. Neither death nor torture were sufficient to subdue the minds of Cargill, and his intrepid followers. ― Fox's History of James II. Magnus, with four thousand of his supposed accomplices, were put to death. ― Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Obs. ― It is said by the generality of compilers of English Grammar, that "when singular pronouns of different persons separated by disjunctives, are nominatives to a verb, the the verb agrees with that person which is the nearest to it; as, Thou or I am greatly mistaken, &c. The inaccuracy of this mode of expression is too evident to need any confutation. The correct method of expressing this sentence, is, Either you or I is greatly mistaken; that is, either of us is greatly mistaken. It must, however, be admitted, that when a disjunctive conjunction occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and a plural one, a difficulty presents itself which cannot be removed by supplying the ellipsis; and therefore these sentences, Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him, - Neither he nor they were present, - Neither your intention nor reasons have any influence, and the like, though ungrammatical in their construction, are in use among the best authors. What is the fifth rule of Syntax? Nouns of multitude govern the verb, according to the unity or plurality of the idea which they are designed to express; as, The nation is powerful; the crowd is great; the people are clamorous; the meeting was large; the parliament is dissolved; the court is just broke up, &c. What is incorrect in this sentence? "The peasantry goes barefoot." The word goes, which ought to be go; for as the word peasantry conveys the idea of plurality, that is, number, the verb should be in the plural number, in order to agree with it. Are the sentences, The House of Commons were adjourned; the army were dispersed; correct? No: the words were in each sentence should be was; for as the words "the House of Commons" and "army" suggest to the mind unity, or the idea of the whole as one thing, the verb must be in the singular number, in order to agree with them. Correct the following sentences: The committee have sat all night. The people is not hearty in the cause. The council were not unanimous. The common people is but ill judges of real merit. In the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good. The court have just broken up. The generality of my readers has approved of my proposal. The parliament of Great Britain consist of three branches — king, lords, and commons. The public were very dissatisfied with his ill-success. The whole world believe it. What is the sixth rule of Syntax? When an infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is the nominative case to the verb, the verb is put in the singular number; as, To do good is praiseworthy; the maxim of doing to all men as you would be done unto, is the foundation of all social duty. But when more than one part or member of a sentence is the nominative case to the verb, then the verb must be put in the plural number; as, To live righteously, and assist the needy, are Christian virtues. Mention the seventh rule of Syntax. When one verb follows another, the latter is put in the infinitive mood; as, Cease to sin; learn to obey. But the verbs, bid, dare, hear, feel, let, make, need, see, &c. require the verb following to be expressed without the sign of the infinitive mood; thus, I heard him say it; they saw him do it; you may hear her sing; he dare not say it, &c. What is the eighth rule of Syntax? When two substantives occur together, signifying different things, the former is put in the genitive or possessive case; as, Man's happiness. Obs. 1st. ― When the genitive case plural of a noun ending with an s, is to be expressed, the apostrophic s is omitted; as, The mens' shares, the physicians' advice, &c. Obs. 2d. ― But when two or more nouns occur together, which are to be expressed in the genitive case, the apostrophic s is to be annexed to only the last; as, The man and woman's right; this was my father, mother, and brother's intention. Yet when any words intervene between the nouns, then each noun is to be expressed with the sign of the genitive case; as, They ate Mary's as well as Caroline's books. Obs. 3d. ― When a word denoting the office or occupation of a person immediately follows a proper name, only the proper name is put in the genitive case; as, I bought it at Johnson's, the bookseller. Obs. 4th. ― The pronominal genitive cases, ours, yours, hers, its, theirs, do not admit of the apostrophe. What is the ninth rule of Syntax? When two or more substantives come together, the latter of which is descriptive of some quality or attribute of the former, they are put in the same case by apposition; as, Cicero, the orator; the princess Charlotte; riches, the incentives to vice. Obs. — When two or more nouns occur together, the first of which is intended to designate some quality of the latter, they are united by the hyphen; as, The geography-master; a county-map; a fruit-tree, &c. Mention the tenth rule of Syntax. Adjectives, and adjective pronouns, must agree in number with their substantives; as, Many men; each house; every man; either side; neither person; this man; these men; that woman; those women. Correct the following sentences: The kings sat each upon their throne. The parliament was very much on their guard. Every one of the letters bear regular dates. I have known him this ten years. I have not seen him this two years. Obs. — Adjectives are sometimes improperly used as adverbs, as are also adverbs as adjectives; as, Miserable poor, instead of miserably poor; in language suitably to the occasion, instead of in language suitable to the occasion. Correct the following sentences: Exceeding wise. In a way agreeably to reason. Act suitable to your station. In a manner comformably to custom. Extreme unwilling. He lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason and religion. It scarce admits of explanation. He behaved conformable to your advice. What is the eleventh rule of Syntax. The relative agrees with the antecedent or noun to which it refers, in number, person, and gender; as, The man who speaks; the book which was bought, &c. Obs. 1st. - When the pronoun who, is the antecedent to the words child or children, or to irrational animals, the word which is substituted; as, The child which, &c.; the animal which, &c. Obs. 2d. — A pronoun, or noun, used in answer to a question, must be of the same case as the pronoun which is used in asking the question; as, Who calls? I; Who saw it? She. Obs. 3d. — When a conjunction copulative occurs between two or more nouns or pronouns, the pronoun referring to them is put in the plural number; but when a disjunctive conjunction so occurs, the pronoun referring must be put in the singular number; as, In regard to wealth and power, he holds them in contempt. We may see a metaphor mataphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read it in a description. Correct the following sentences: Persons which talk much are not often very wise. Our father which art in Heaven. Can any one on their first intercourse with the world, be so secure that they shall not be deceived? Who of the family called? Send each of them in their turn. He had one acquaintance which poisoned his principles. Who tore the book? him. Who is there? it is me. Whom did you want? His sister and him. Who broke the glass? Not me. A lampoon, or a satire, does not carry in them robbery or murder. Mention the twelfth rule of Syntax. Active verbs, as also their active participles, govern pronouns following them in the accusative case; as, I admire her; I am teaching them. Correct the following sentences: He and they we know, but who art thou? Who should I see the other day but my old friend. She that is industrious, reward. Who have you called? By the character of those who you choose for your friends, your own is likely to be formed. Who did he beat? Who do you think we met. He that is diligent, commend. Who is he teaching? Whoever he recommends, will be admitted. What is the thirteenth rule of Syntax? Neuter or intransitive intransive verbs neither govern cases, nor can they be compounded with the auxiliary verb to be; as, He has swerved from his promise. Correct the following sentences: The storm is ceased. Half the men are deserted. He is entered into a new concern. They are arrived. He is departed. When they were come. Whose number was now amounted to above one thousand. Mention the fourteenth rule of Syntax. The verb to be through all its inflections, requires the same case after it as before it; as, It is I; I am he. Correct the following sentences: I would act the same part if I were him. Tell me which is him. Was it him that spoke. I thought it was him. It can't be him. It was me, and not them who wrote it. It could not have been him. Whom think ye that I am. I saw him that was asked for. Obs. — But when an accusative case precedes the infinitive mood to be, an accusative case must follow it; as, I understood it to be him; I saw one whom I took to be him; whom do you think me to be. What is the fifteenth rule of Syntax? The auxiliary verbs to be and to have require the past or perfect participle after them; as, He has risen; I have drank; and when the participle ends in ed it is improper to change that termination into t; as, He has surpassed all his rivals. Correct the following sentences: He would have spoke I am wanting This is well wrote. He has broke the window. They were chose. He has shook the phial. Have you forgot your promise? It was spoke extempore. You have mistook my intention. He has long bore your insolence. The house is pleasantly situate. She was much distrest at the news. What is the sixteenth rule of Syntax? When the article the precedes an active participle, the participle partakes of the nature of a substantive, and must be followed by the preposition of; or, in order that the sentence may be correct, both the article and preposition must be omitted: as, He spends his whole life in the doing of good; or he spends his whole life in doing good; instead of he spends his whole life in the doing good, or, he spends his whole life in doing of good. Correct the following sentences: He was sent to prepare the way by the preaching repentance. Defending of a bad cause is as disgraceful as the cause itself. In forming of his opinion, he was guided by circumstances. Old medals for the illustrating history, are like maps for explaining of geography. From calling of names, he proceeded to blows. The wonderful success of the gospel, and universal spreading of it, had been long foretold. He endeavoured to avoid the expressing himself too severely. Obs. — Of such sentences as these, — much depends on your brother's answering of the letter, — much depends on their observing of this rule, — or, the minister's supporting him secured his election, — the phraseology should be altered by substituting, in the place of the participle, a noun of the same import. Thus, much depends on your brother's answer to this letter; much depends on their observance of this rule; the minister’s support secured his election. What is the seventeenth rule of Syntax? The moods, tenses, and voices of verbs must correspond with the sense of the idea to be expressed ; and, in point of time, must bear relation to the other verbs in the sentence; as, I intended to write to you yesterday, instead of I intended to have written to you yesterday; I expected to find him in health, instead of I expected to have found him in health. Correct the following sentences: I expected to have heard from my brother to-day. I remember the family more than twenty years. It is a year since I have seen him. I feared, that I should not have done it, before you called. On Saturday last I was at Hampstead, and have seen your brother. I had rather walk than ride. I wished to have interposed my authority. What do you want? That I might be permitted to speak. He has done his duty, as he ought to have done it. Lodgings to let. He has a horse to sell. At Easter last I was in your brother's service two years. On Christmas next I shall be occupier of this farm two years. Before I come to you, I called on your brother. It was a maxim with Cæsar, that we ought to reckon that we had done nothing, so long as any thing remained to be done. What is the eighteenth rule of Syntax? Prepositions govern the accusative case of the pronouns; as, With me; to him; for whom; and they ought immediately to precede the word which they govern; as, To whom do you speak? not Whom do you speak to? What is wrong in these sentences — Who do you ask for? Who do you speak to? First, the pronoun, who, should be in the accusative case, being governed by the prepositions for and to; and secondly, those prepositions should immediately precede the words which they govern. Correct the following sentences: Who do you ask for? Who do you speak to? To who will he give it? Who can they trust to besides me? It was given to him and I. Who do you speak of? He abuses whoever he meets? Who do you think I met? Who do you think I saw? I cannot tell who it belongs to. Every man must answer for his-self. Does the fellow know who he speaks to? Do you know who this hat belongs to? Associate not with those who none speak well of. The men of theirselves are incapable of the task. Obs. 1st. — The preposition to is generally omitted before the pronoun after the verbs to give, to show, to bring, to fetch, to call, to ask, to address, &c. as, Give me the book; show him the picture; bring me a glass; fetch me some bread; call him; ask her; address him. Obs. 2d. — Prepositions are used according to the idiom of the language, or of the Latin prepositions of which words are compounded; as, He went to York, not he went for York; I cannot reconcile it with experience; averse from doing it. Obs. 3d. — The preposition and the noun or pronoun which it governs, should never be separated, in order to connect different prepositions with the same noun or pronoun, but the noun should be placed immediately after the first preposition, and a pronoun after the second; as, I wrote to your brother, and cautioned him, instead of I wrote to, and cautioned your brother. What is the nineteenth rule of Syntax? Adverbs are placed immediately before adjectives, after verbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb; as, This animal is very fierce; he learns assiduously; she was extremely beloved. Obs. — But the adverb may be placed before the verb, and frequently with much effect; as, If thou art still innocent, anxiously beware of temptation. - When two auxiliaries occur, it may sometimes be placed between them, and sometimes after them; as, He has generally been reckoned studious; these rules will be clearly understood, after they have been diligently studied Sometimes it follows the noun; as He induced them to carry their opposition farther. Correct the following sentences: We always find them ready. He is not agreeable always equally. I shall only speak of his undutifulness. He is blessed naturally with a good memory. We find him at home seldom. We find her from home always. It was not understood well. Prophecies which have remarkably been fulfilled. These rules will clearly be understood, after they have been studied diligently. Mention the twentieth rule of Syntax. Conjunctions, whether copulative or disjunctive, connect like moods and tenses of verbs, as also like cases of nouns and pronouns; as, We went and returned on the same day; you taught him and me. What is incorrect in this sentence — Your brother and him are tolerable grammarians. The word him is in the wrong case; for the word brother being in the nominative case, the word him should also be in the same case, according to the rule. Correct the following sentences: My sister and her were invited. It belongs either to him or I. Let you and I do it. The parliament has addressed the king, and was prorogued. To profess virtue, yet getting drunk every day, marks gross inconsistency. We often overlook the blessings which we possess, and are coveting those which are out of our reach. To insult misfortune, is ungenerous; but wanting the means of relieving it, is no disgrace. If he understands the subject, and attend to it industriously, he can scarcely fail of success. Obs. 1st. — When moods and tenses of verbs and cases of pronouns are connected together by conjunctions, and the sense of the expression requires the moods, tenses, or cases to be different, the nominative must be expressed before the mood, tense, or case so differing; as She was proud, though she is now humble; the world begins to recede, and it will soon disappear. Obs. 2d. — When the conjunctions neither and either are made use of, their corresponding conjunctions must attend them; as Neither he nor I can tell; I will either call or send. Correct the following sentences: I shall do neither one or the other. Neither despise age or honesty. We can’t attend to one or the other. He will neither do it himself, or suffer any one else to do it. What is the twenty-first rule of Syntax? The conjunctions if, though, but, yet, unless, except, whether, lest, and that, when the sense in which the verb is used, implies a doubt or supposition, govern the verb in the subjunctive mood; but when the sense, in which the verb is to be used, implies no doubt, but is a positive affirmation, then the indicative mood is used after them: as, Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him; though he is poor, he is contented. Correct the following sentences: Unless it rains, he will come. If he is but discreet, he will succeed. Though he submit, he is not convinced. Despise not poverty, lest it becomes your own condition. Unless he acts prudently, he will not attain his end. Though he be rich, yet he is unhappy. If he succeeds, he means to retire. He will maintain his principles, though power threaten him. If he think as he speaks, he may safely be trusted. He checked you that you should not presume. I will go, though I know that death be certain. I will go, though I am uncertain what fate awaits me. Obs. — After verbs of wishing the conjunctive form of the verb is used; as, I wish that he were come. So, also, such expressions as this "Were there no difference, there would be no choice," are in use amongst the best writers. What is the twenty-second rule of Syntax? The interjections O! Oh! Ah! govern the accusative of a pronoun in the first person; as Oh me! Ah me! but the nominative of a pronoun in the second person; as O thou deceiver! Oh ye hypocrites! What is the twenty-third rule of Syntax? Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative; as, I have not had no trouble; that is I have had trouble. Correct the following sentences: I have taken care that none shall receive no injury. I cannot by no means assent to it. I never said so, nor do not now. He has eaten no bread, nor drank no water, during this week. Nor is danger apprehended in such a government, no more than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder or earthquakes. Mention the twenty-fourth rule of Syntax. All the parts of a sentence should correspond with each other, and have a common government, or bear a similarity of construction. Therefore the following sentence is inaccurate. The reward which was his due, has already, or will hereafter be given to him; for the words has already or will hereafter, cannot have a common regimen: it should be, The reward which was his due has already been, or will hereafter be given to him. Correct the following sentences: He was guided by interests always different, sometimes contrary to those of the community. It is my wish to make this grammar practical, rather than speculating, and useful rather than full of pedantry. Never was man so teased, or suffered half the uneasiness, as have done this evening. I shall do all I can, to persuade others to take the same measures for their cure as I have. Neither has he, nor any other persons, suspected such an event. Several alterations and additions have been made to the work. Whether he be present or no, I shall mention the matter. He was more bold and active, but not so prudent as his companion. What is the twenty-fifth rule of Syntax? When the conjunctions than and as are used for the purpose of comparison the same case follows as preceded them; as He is older than I; which construction, by supplying the elliptic words not expressed, appears correct; that is, he is older than I am. Correct the following sentences: He can read as well as her. Do you think him taller than I. He is more injured by your conduct than us. It was well expressed by Plato, but more elegantly by Solomon than he. The affair requires a more active person than him. You are not so weak as him. He is more cunning than us. It was not the work of so eminent an author as him, to whom it was first imputed. They are much greater gainers than us by this affair. There is but one to blame, and that is me. He got a richer wife that her he missed. Of Parsing. As soon as the learner is acquainted with the different parts of speech, and the rules for forming them into sentences, he should be taught the analysing of a sentence into its component parts, and exercised in all its grammatical circumstances. This process is called Parsing; which teaches the nature, concord and government of the various parts of a sentence with respect to each other. Parsing is divided into two heads: 1st, Etymological, or Simple Parsing, and 2dly, Syntactical, or Complex Parsing. In Etymological, or Simple Parsing, the part of speech is merely described, with its circumstances of person, number, gender, case, comparison, voice, mood, or tense; but in Syntactical, or Complex Parsing, the part of speech is described, with all these circumstances, together with their concord and government. To these two methods may be added that of distinguishing the parts of speech only; a plan proper to be adopted with learners in their first attempts at Parsing. Rules necessary to be learned before the Pupil begins to parse. 1st. If the part of speech be an article, — observe whether it is definite or indefinite. 2dly. In a noun, — observe its gender, number, and case; if the nominative case, find the verb with which it agrees; if the accusative, find the verb by which it is governed. 3dly. If an adjective, — observe its degree, and find the noun the quality of which it expresses. 4thly. If a pronoun, — observe for what noun it stands, as also its person, number, gender, and case; if of the nominative case, find to what noun it refers; if of the accusative, find by what word it is governed. 5thly. If a relative, — observe its antecedent, as also its person, number, gender, and case; if of the nominative case, find the noun to which it refers; if of the accusative, find by what word it is governed. 6thly. If a verb, — observe its voice, mood, tense, number, and person; as also its nominative case: if of the active voice, observe what word it governs. 7thly. If an adverb, — observe what word it affects. 8thly. If a preposition, — observe what noun or pronoun it governs. 9thly. If a conjunction, — observe what words, members of a sentence, or sentences it connects. l0thly. If an interjection, — observe what it expresses. Also before the Pupil begins to parse syntactically, he should commit to memory the following rules: 1st. Every nominative case must have a verb, either expressed or understood. 2dly. Every verb must have a nominative case, either expressed or understood. 3dly. Every relative must have an antecedent, either expressed or understood. Parsing-Table of Questions. What part of speech? If a noun, pronoun, &c. How do you know it to be so? If an article. Of what kind? If definite or indefinite. Why? If a noun. Of what kind, common or proper? Of what number? Decline it. Of what gender? Of what case? Why? If an adjective. Of what degree of comparison? Compare it. With what dees it agree? If a pronoun. Of what kind? Decline it. Of what person, gender, number, and case? Why? What is its antecedent? If a verb? Of what kind? Of what voice, mood, tense, number, and person? Form it. Conjugate it. With what does it agree, or what is its nominative case? What does it govern? If an adverb. Of what kind? What word does it affect or modify? If a preposition. What word does it govern? If a conjunction. What words, members of a sentence, or sentences does it connect? Why does it govern the subjunctive mood? If an interjection. What does it express? Does the nominative or accusative case follow it? A Specimen of Parsing, Distinguishing the Parts of Speech only. Virtue ennobles us. Virtue, a noun. Ennobles, a verb. Us, a personal pronoun. Examples. 1. Hope animates us. 2. Contentment is true happiness. 3. Vice produces misery. 4. The man is happy who lives wisely. A Specimen of Etymological, or Simple Parsing. Vice degrades us. Vice is a substantive common, of the neuter gender, singular number, and nominative case. (Decline it.) Degrades is a regular verb, of the active voice, indicative mood, present tense, and third person singular. (Form it. Degrade, degraded, degradedObs. When the pupil is desired to form or decline the verb, he ought to repeat only the verb itself, its perfect or past tense, and its perfect or past participle; as, love, loved, loved; write, wrote, written. But should he be desired to conjugate the verb, he must then carry it through all the moods and tenses..) Us is a personal pronoun, of the first person, plural number, and accusative case. Examples. 1. The love of learning is the ornament of a good child. 2. The precepts of wisdom are the good child's delight. 3. Dissimulation in youth is the forerunner of perfidy in old age. 4. Piety and virtue are particularly graceful and becoming in youth. A Specimen of Syntactical, or Complex Parsing. Idleness and ignorance are the parents of many vices. Idleness is a substantive common of the neuter gender, singular number, and one of the nominative cases to the verb are. And is a copulative conjunction uniting the substantive ignorance with idleness, in the same gender, number, and case, by rule the twentieth of Syntax. Ignorance is a substantive common, of the neuter gender, singular number, and is the other nominative case to the verb are. Are is an irregular neuter verb of the indicative mood, present tense, plural number, and first person, and agrees with its nominative cases idleness and ignorance in number and person, according to the first rule of Syntax. (Decline it. Am, was, been, Now conjugate it.) The a definite article. Parents a substantive, plural number, nominative case, according to the 14th rule of Syntax. (Decline it.) Of a preposition, and the sign of the genitive case of the word vices. Many an adjective of the positive degree; and agreeing with its substantive vices in gender, number, and person. (Compare it. Much or many, more, most.) Vices a substantive common, of the neuter gender, plural number, and genitive case, being governed by the word Parents. Examples. 1. A peaceful mind is virtue's reward. 2. Wisdom and virtue ennoble us. Vice and folly debase us. 3. Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure, put into his own hands. 4. Religion and virtue, our best support and highest interest, confer on the mind principles of noble independence. 5. A contented mind and a good conscience, will make a man happy in all conditions. 6. Old age will prove a joyless and dreary season, if we arrive at it with an unimproved or corrupted mind. ***Asterism upside down. As Prosody and Punctuation do not properly fall within the acceptation of the word Grammar, but are referrible to the term Composition, they will be treated of in the "Grammar of Composition and Rhetoric," which the Author of the Catechism of English Grammar is preparing for publication. Directions Respecting the Use of Capital Letters. The first word of every book, chapter, writing, letter, note, or paragraph should begin with a capital letter. So should the first word after every period or full stop, and the first word of every line of poetry. So, the appellations or epithets of the Deity, and proper names of all kinds. So, all the adjectives expressive of national qualities; as Grecian, Roman, English, French, &c. So, the first word of all quotations, as also all emphatical words, or such as are the subject of the discourse. And, lastly, the titles of books and persons, as also the pronoun I and the interjection O. Of Punctuation. What is meant by Punctuation? The art of dividing composition in sentences, or parts of sentences, by points and stops. Mention the points or stops used in composition. The comma (,) — the semicolon (;) — the colon (:) — the period or full stop (.) — the notes of interrogation (?) — of admiration or exclamation (!) Are no other points or signs used in composition? Yes: the dash (—) the apostrophe (') — the caret (^) — the hyphen (-) — inverted commas, ("") the parenthesis ( ) — the acute accent (´) the grave accent (` or ^) — the long accent (―) the short accent (˘) — and the diæresis (¨). Are there no marks or signs in use? Yes: the paragraph (¶) — the section (§) — crotchets and brackets ([]) — the index (☞) the brace (}) — the ellipsis (— —) the asterisk (*) — the obelisk (†) — and the parallel (||) —. What is the use of the comma? To separate those parts of sentences which require a pause between them. What of the semicolon? To divide a compound sentence into two or more parts. What of the colon? To indicate a connection to sense between two or more parts of a sentence, more independent of each other than such as are separated by a semicolon. When is the period used? When the sense of a sentence is completed. When is the note of interrogation used? When a question is asked. What is the use of the note of admiration or exclamation? To express any sudden emotion or passion. What is the use of the parenthesis? To introduce into the body of a sentence some remark or information illustrative of the subject. What is the use of the dash? To express a significant pause, or to separate an enumeration of facts. What is the use of the apostrophe? To abbreviate words. What of the caret? To indicate an omission of a word or words. What is the use of the hyphen? To connect compound words. What do the inverted commas imply? A quotation or transcription from some work. What is the use of the accents? To mark the measure of syllables; and the diæresis is used to show, that two vowels coming together do not form a diphthong, but are two syllables. What does the paragraph denote? The beginning of a new subject. What the section? It is used to divide a discourse or chapter into less parts or portions. What purpose do the crotchets or brackets serve? To inclose some explanation, or deficiency, or to rectify some mistake. What is the use of the index? To point out something worthy of remark or attention. What is the use of the brace? To connect a triplet or three lines together, or to connect a number of words with one common term. When is the ellipsis used? When some letters in a word, or some words in a sentence, are suppressed. What is the use of the asterisk, the obelisk, and the parallel? As references to the margin or bottom of the page. Solecisms or Vulgar or Erroneous Modes of Expression. Erroneous Phrases Corrected They two books Those two books Bring me them things Bring me those things Take this here pen Take this pen Bring that there book Bring that book Says I Said I, or I said Thinks I Thought I, or I thought Look in the box Look into the box Break it in pieces Break it into pieces Put it in your pocket Put it into your pocket It is equally the same It is the same Yes sure, or yes surely Yes From where, or from whence Whence From here, or from hence Hence From there, or from thence Thence We seldom or ever want it We seldom or never (or we seldom if ever) want it. Whether they will or no Whether they will or not The old original house of call The original house of call It happened sooner than they thought for It happened sooner than they expected Look if the sun shines Look whether the sun shines Inquire if he called Inquire whether he called His character is undeniable His character is unexceptionable Not but what it is true Not but that it is true She was to call as this day She was to call this day The two first houses The first two houses I cannot distinguish them from another I cannot distinguish them one from the other I had rather send for it I would rather send for it Come here Come hither Where are you going Whither are you going He is going there He is going thither While he was a walking While he was walking He is gone to lay down He is gone to lie down I laid down for a few moments I lay down for a few moments Lie it down directly Lay it down directly They go to the theatre for to be seen They go to the theatre to be seen Who finds you in money Who finds you money On seeing him, she flew away On seeing him, she fled away On seeing him she always flies away On seeing him she always flees away The birds fled on seeing us The birds flew on seeing us Of consequence Consequently It is apparent It is obvious He adduced a proof He produced a proof Set down for a moment Sit down for a moment Sit yourself down Set yourself down He was setting upon the stile He was sitting upon the stile They had scarcely sat themselves down They had scarcely set themselves down I have been all over the town I have been over all the town About a month back About a month ago They have got some They have some Our mutual friend Our common friend Such another occurrence Another such occurrence I propose to do it I purpose to do it It is at your disposition It is at your disposal Formed out of the dust of the earth Formed of the dust of the earth He learnt us to write He taught us to write He had no sooner spoken but he retired He had no sooner spoken than he retired Frequent opportunity occurs of doing good Frequent opportunities occur of doing good They began for to con- consider the matter They began to consider the matter They commanded him for to come They commanded him to come You are mistaken You mistake I found I was mistaken I found I had mistaken Be that as it will Be that as it may He retreated back He retreated It was covered over It was covered Mention it over again Mention it again They are combined together to injure me They are combined to injure me A most perfect production A perfect production The chiefest good The chief good The supremest authority The supreme authority A more superior work has never been produced A superior work has never been produced The extremest end The extreme end They answered and said They said The river is overflown The river is overflowed A new pair of shoes A pair of new shoes An old suit of clothes A suit of old clothes A young prudent woman A prudent young woman An old selfish man A selfish old man Don't he intend to comply Doesn't he intend to comply He tore it to pieces He tore it into pieces In no event In no case It is about a month ago since he called It is about a month since he called She is the oldest of the two She is the older of the two Which is the tallest of you two Which is the taller of you two Which of the two roads is the shortest Which of the two roads is the shorter This is the largest of the two This is the larger of the two Is this or that the best road Is this or that the better road Wait while I come Wait until I come I do not mind it I do not regard it You will readily find him You will easily find him
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